Aphalaridae

Löw, 1879

jumping plant lice, psyllids, lerp insects

Subfamily Guides

is a of sap-sucking insects in the superfamily Psylloidea, commonly known as jumping plant lice or psyllids. The family contains approximately 749 with worldwide distribution except Antarctica. Members are small, phloem-feeding insects, often highly -specific. The family was revised in 2012 and 2021 to include seven based on molecular and morphological data. Several species are significant agricultural and forestry pests, including the red gum lerp psyllid (Glycaspis brimblecombei) and the common pistachio (Agonoscena pistaciae).

Pachypsylla celtidisinteneris by no rights reserved, uploaded by Yann Kemper. Used under a CC0 license.

Spondyliaspidinae by no rights reserved, uploaded by Jesse Rorabaugh. Used under a CC0 license.

Pronunciation

How to pronounce Aphalaridae: /æfəˈlærɪdiː/

These audio files are automatically generated. While they are not always 100% accurate, they are a good starting point.

Identification

Distinguished from other Psylloidea by the reduced or absent tarsal in nymphs—a synapomorphy for . identification relies on combinations of: presence/absence and shape of genal cones; presence/absence of pterostigma; arrangement of metatibial spurs; and wing venation patterns. The Spondyliaspidinae ( insects) is distinguished by nymphs producing conspicuous lerps. Molecular phylogenetic analysis has clarified boundaries between Aphalaridae and related families, though relationships among some subfamilies remain unresolved.

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Habitat

distribution is determined by plant availability. occupy environments ranging from arid shrublands to temperate forests, salt marshes, and urban parks. Host plants include Asteraceae, Polygonaceae, Myrtaceae (Eucalyptus), Amaranthaceae, and Anacardiaceae (pistachio). Some species are associated with specific microhabitats on host plants: buds, stems, or leaf .

Distribution

Worldwide distribution on all continents except Antarctica. Native ranges include Australia (center of diversity for Spondyliaspidinae), Palearctic, and Nearctic regions. Several have become : Glycaspis brimblecombei in Brazil and other countries; Blastopsylla occidentalis in Africa, Asia, and elsewhere; Spondyliaspis cf. plicatuloides in South Africa. Aphalara species occur in the Neotropics including southern Brazil, Mexico, and Puerto Rico.

Seasonality

Activity patterns vary by and climate. In temperate regions, active during warmer months. In tropical and subtropical regions (e.g., Brazil, Cameroon), multivoltine allow multiple per year. densities influenced by rainfall—heavy rain can reduce populations by removing nymphal protective coverings, while drought periods favor population growth.

Diet

Phloem sap-feeders. All feed on vascular plant phloem. specificity varies: many species are highly host-specific, while some exhibit broader host ranges. Documented host associations include: Eucalyptus species (Myrtaceae) for Spondyliaspidinae and Blastopsylla; Persicaria species (Polygonaceae) for Aphalara; Asteraceae for Craspedolepta; pistachio (Pistacia vera, Anacardiaceae) for Agonoscena pistaciae; Suaeda japonica (Amaranthaceae) for Rhodochlanis suaedicola.

Host Associations

Eucalyptus - primary Myrtaceae; numerous Spondyliaspidinae, Blastopsylla occidentalis, Glycaspis brimblecombei
Persicaria - primary Polygonaceae; Aphalara including gall-inducing A. ritteri and A. ortegae
Reynoutria japonica - primary Polygonaceae; Japanese knotweed, target of biocontrol agent Aphalara itadori
Pistacia vera - primary Anacardiaceae; pistachio, of Agonoscena pistaciae
Suaeda japonica - primary Amaranthaceae; salt marsh of Rhodochlanis suaedicola
Asteraceae - primary numerous Craspedolepta

Life Cycle

Hemimetabolous development. consists of stage, five nymphal instars, and winged . Egg varies by and temperature. Nymphal development occurs on plants, often under protective coverings () or within galls. Total life cycle duration ranges from approximately 32 days (Blastopsylla occidentalis) to 37 days (Spondyliaspis cf. plicatuloides) under favorable conditions. typically sexual; females may require several days after to reach reproductive maturity.

Behavior

Nymphs of many (especially Spondyliaspidinae) construct and live under protective ''—sugary, shell-like coverings that may deter and desiccation. Some species (e.g., Aphalara) induce leaf roll galls on plants. are capable of jumping using enlarged hind wings. Visual acuity varies among species (6.3°–8.7°), with species occupying microhabitats requiring more movement between plant modules possessing superior visual acuities. Male calling signals () used in mate location, though signal patterns may be similar among sympatric species, suggesting additional chemical or visual cues operate in species recognition.

Ecological Role

Herbivores that transfer plant phloem nutrients to higher . Serve as prey for various natural enemies including Coccinellidae (lady beetles), Hymenopteran (Psyllaephagus spp.), and fungi (Cordyceps spp., bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae). Some function as biocontrol agents against plants (e.g., Aphalara itadori against Japanese knotweed). Endosymbiotic bacteria including 'Candidatus Carsonella ruddii' and Sodalis sp. are harbored in bacteriomes, potentially contributing to nutritional to plants. pipientis detected in some , with potential effects on .

Human Relevance

Several are significant agricultural and forestry pests. Glycaspis brimblecombei (red gum lerp psyllid) damages Eucalyptus plantations in Brazil and elsewhere, reducing wood production. Agonoscena pistaciae is a key pest of pistachio in Iran and other producing regions. Blastopsylla occidentalis affects Eucalyptus in Africa and Asia. Conversely, Aphalara itadori has been released as a biocontrol agent against knotweeds (Reynoutria spp.) in Europe and North America. strategies combine , plant selection, and monitoring for pest species.

Similar Taxa

PsyllidaeAlso in Psylloidea; distinguished by nymphal tarsal structure and morphological features including wing venation and genal cone characteristics
TriozidaeAlso in Psylloidea; distinguished by nymphal and characters; nymphs lack tarsal
LiviidaeFormerly included in broader concepts; separated based on molecular and morphological revisions in 2012 and 2021

More Details

Taxonomic History

The classification was substantially revised in 2012 and further amended in 2021 by Burckhardt et al., recognizing seven : Aphalarinae, Cecidopsyllinae, Microphyllurinae, Phacopteroninae, Rhinocolinae, Spondyliaspidinae, and Togepsyllinae. Phylogenetic relationships among subfamilies remain partially unresolved; molecular analyses did not include representatives from Cecidopsyllinae or Togepsyllinae.

Endosymbionts

Aphalara itadori harbors a dual symbiotic system with 'Candidatus Carsonella ruddii' and Sodalis sp. in the bacteriome, suggesting evolutionarily stable mutualistic relationships. No known plant or reproductive manipulators were detected in analyzed strains, supporting suitability as biocontrol agents.

Conservation Note

Some occupy threatened ; Rhodochlanis suaedicola occurs in Korean salt marshes threatened by seaside development, highlighting potential conservation concerns for non-pest aphalarid species.