Aleyrodidae

whiteflies

Subfamily Guides

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Whiteflies () are small hemipteran insects comprising over 1,550 described . They are phloem-feeding pests of agricultural and horticultural importance, with many species causing direct damage through sap extraction and indirect damage via honeydew production and growth. Several species, notably Bemisia tabaci, are significant of plant viruses. The includes economically important pests such as the greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum), silverleaf whitefly (Bemisia tabaci), and bandedwinged whitefly (Trialeurodes abutiloneus).

Bemisia by no rights reserved, uploaded by 余世文. Used under a CC0 license.Bemisia argentifolii by no rights reserved, uploaded by 余世文. Used under a CC0 license.Bemisia argentifolii by no rights reserved, uploaded by Shi-wen YU. Used under a CC0 license.

Pronunciation

How to pronounce Aleyrodidae: //ˌæləˈrɒdɪdae//

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Identification

are minute (typically 1–3 mm), -like insects with powdery white wings held roof-like over the body. Nymphs and pupae are , oval, and often translucent yellowish or whitish; shed pupal cases remain attached to leaves. Wing patterns vary by : Trialeurodes abutiloneus displays distinctive transverse zig-zag bands on forewings; Bemisia tabaci has uniformly pale wings. Red eyespots may be visible on pupae shortly before adult .

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Habitat

Found on the undersides of leaves of diverse plants. Occurs in greenhouse environments, open agricultural fields, and on ornamental plants. Specific varies by : Trialeurodes vaporariorum is predominantly greenhouse-associated; Bemisia tabaci occurs in both protected and open-field ; Trialeurodes abutiloneus is associated with cotton, soybean, sweet potato, and malvaceous crops.

Distribution

distribution with records from North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, and elsewhere. Specific distribution records include: Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Vermont (USA), and USA generally. Bemisia tabaci confirmed in Montenegro (southern localities: Ulcinj, Bar, Budva, Tivat, Podgorica; absent from Herceg Novi). Trialeurodes vaporariorum studied in Malatya, Turkey. Trialeurodes abutiloneus recorded in northwestern Tennessee, USA.

Seasonality

vary by and region. Trialeurodes vaporariorum: first detected late October to early November in Malatya, Turkey, with peak in late season (7.2 and 5.8 adults + nymphs per leaf in consecutive years). Bemisia tabaci: monitored from end of June to first half of October in Montenegro, with activity spanning the growing season.

Diet

Phloem-feeding; and nymphs insert into leaf vascular tissue to extract sugar-rich sap.

Life Cycle

Four stages: , nymph (including mobile "" stage), pupa, and . Eggs laid on leaf undersurfaces. Crawlers move to feeding sites, then become . Nymphs undergo several , with final molt producing pupa from which winged adult emerges. Shed pupal skins persist on leaves. Multiple per year possible in favorable conditions.

Behavior

flutter from leaf surface when disturbed. Nymphs produce honeydew as waste product during feeding. Some use vibratory signals during mating. Adults attracted to yellow sticky traps.

Ecological Role

Agricultural and horticultural pests causing direct feeding damage, honeydew production leading to growth, and transmission of plant viruses (Bemisia tabaci transmits over 400 virus ). Serve as for (e.g., Encarsia formosa) and predatory beetles.

Human Relevance

Significant economic impact on greenhouse production (poinsettias, vegetables) and field crops (cotton, soybean, melon, cucumber, tomato, pepper, eggplant). Bemisia tabaci "Q " exhibits resistance, complicating management. using , predatory beetles, and entomopathogens is employed. Occasional nuisance on holiday poinsettias in homes.

Sources and further reading